For centuries after his death, schoolchildren in Europe learned the contours of Roman statesmanship, politics and thought by reciting passages from one of his many writings. Today, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.), simply referred to as 'Cicero', no longer figures into civic education..
Rather than achieving the highest offices in the Roman administration by being the son of a senator, Cicero climbed the latter as a 'New Man' from a wealthy family without connections to power. After being trained in the law, he quickly established himself as one of the most articulate and persuasive lawyers at court, and his high reputation won both admiration from much of the elite and the opportunity to serve the state in an official capacity. As Consul (the highest administrative office in Rome), Cicero was instrumental in putting down a conspiracy to overthrow the Republic by Lucius Sergius Catalina in 63 B.C.E.. Catalina, who had gathered a sizable armed following of disaffected and impoverished men, was seized and condemned to death at the urging of Cicero. For 'saving' the Republic, he was awarded the title 'Father of the Country'.
.
On 10 January 49 B.C.E., Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and presumably headed for Rome with his army. As it was politically anathema for commanders to take their soldiers into the capital, Caesar's action amounted to treason and ignited a civil war. A rival general, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), was charged by the Senate, the core Republican institution of government, to defend the state. Whether or not Caesar was left without recourse and justified in marching on Rome is a question still being debated today. However, Cicero, one of the two leading defenders of the Republic at the time, walked a fine line between Caesar and Pompey and did not uniformly condemn Caesar as did his ultra-Republican, senatorial colleague Marcus Porcius Cato (The Younger). At one time, Cicero could be seen traveling and seemingly siding with Pompey. At another, he accepted a monetary loan from Caesar. Had this Republican statesman become a mere opportunist?
.
In 44 B.C.E., Caesar was assassinated. Brutus and Cassius, the assassins, retained armies in the field and prepared to fight to resurrect the Republic - destroyed by Caesar's dictatorship. Octavian (the future ruler of the Roman Empire to be known as 'Augustus') was 18 years old and suddenly found himself the adopted heir to Caesar in the fallen dictator's last will and testament, and Mark Antony, a Roman commander who had had inside knowledge of Caesar's assassination (and chose not to prevent it) were all poised to square off in a titanic battle for supremacy. That battle, however, was postponed for an interlude of political expediency as Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus (another commander) formed the Second Triumvirate (Rule of Three) to essentially rule by military fiat. In forming their agreement, the triumvirs approved each other's death lists (proscription lists) of enemies. As Cicero had come out forcefully against Mark Antony in a series of rhetorical speeches known as 'Philippics', he was on Antony's proscription list.
.
Cicero's virulent line against Antony remains inexplicable. Antony had worked as governor under Caesar, but Octavian was Caesar's heir and could be reasonably expected to take revenge on Brutus and Cassius - the Republican holdouts - and rule Rome autocratically in a similar fashion to the dictator.
.
In short, Cicero's miscalculations proved he was no politician and more suited to academic thought. Subsequently, Cicero was murdered at the age of 63 under the aegis of the triumvirs. The use of violence in the political arena, which Cicero had ardently supported against Catalina and Antony, would now come back full circle and undo Cicero himself.
.
Rome lost a once noble statesman, and history may have lost one as well.
.
(Picture - Marcus Tullius Cicero)
.
Book Recommendation: Everitt, Anthony. Cicero. New York: Random House, 2001.
.
J Roquen