Since his death in 1821, the historical reputation of Napoleon Bonaparte had fluctuated wildly. Some scholars view the French icon as a military genius, the principle guardian of the Revolution and the founder of modern era. Others have a far different perspective. Consider the following quotes from the eminent Oxford historian Paul Johnson in his short biography entitled simply Napoleon..
'(He had) a ruthless disregard for human life'
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'He was an opportunist incarnate'
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Although a darker side did exist to his reign, Johnson's overly rhetorical and somewhat provocative criticism must be considered in historical context.
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In regard to his supposed 'ruthless disregard for human life', Johnson points to an ugly episode in Napoleon's military career. After a string of impressive victories against both Royalists and foreign invaders, Napoleon decided to follow the path of Alexander the Great in attempting to conquer Egypt in 1799. He hoped to outflank his enemies by forming alliances with various tribes and launching the construction to build the Suez Canal to cripple English trade. Although his exhausted army managed to gain victory near Alexandria in the Battle of the Pyramids, the campaign was beset by insurmountable logistical problems and ultimately failed in its objectives. Furthermore, Napoleon had the misfortune of encountering a legion of unruly Ottoman Turk allied soldiers. Having little faith in their proclaimed surrender, he ordered their execution, disputed number between 3,000 and 4,500, to stave off the possibility of a blindsided attack.
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Although Johnson rightly condemns the action, Napoleon's decision was largely anomalous in the span of his entire career. Exigent circumstances may have forced his hand in an foreign land replete with populations eager to smite any interloper. When faced with the prospect of killing or being killed, few if any famous generals in history (Alexander, Caesar, Hannibal, Hideyoshi etc.) would fail to slaughter the enemy to live to fight another day. At the very least, his action can be partly understood, although not condoned, as a probable measure of self-defense under threat. In contrast, the Roman Emperor Theodosius (347-395) ordered his army to massacre 7,000 at Thessaloniki in 390AD after peaceful demonstrators clamored for the release an unjustly imprisoned native. In China, castration was used as a means of punishment for internal and external foes. Napoleon's brutal slaying of the Syrians was unquestionably a reprehensible act, but it certainly does not compare to the 'ruthless disregard for human life' exhibited by many military leaders in history. Johnson seems to have taken an unhistorical approach to the event by adding an element of 'presentism' into the narrative, and his harsh judgment contains echoes the current standards of human rights today. Once again, the debacle in Jaffa was the exception rather than the rule.
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As far as Johnson's broadside 'he was an opportunist incarnate' is concerned, his sweeping generalization on Napoleon's character must be questioned. First, why the use of the word 'incarnate'? Rather than a scholarly appraisal, this is pure histrionics. No human being can be a perfect typification of an ascribed characteristic. Was Stalin the 'incarnation of evil'? Not so. Despite murdering millions to remain in power, he could be found sitting near the grave of his former wife late at night, whom he drove to suicide, undoubtedly recalling at least one fond memory of her presence in his paranoid life. Similarly, Hitler loved his dog 'Blondie' and married his longtime girlfriend Eva Braun inside the Berlin bunker in the last days of Nazi Germany. Historians ought to resist using a words tainted with superlative rhetoric and especially ones tinged with theological attributes.
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Napoleon, as Johnson correctly contends, was a supreme opportunist, but could not the same be said for George Washington - a man universally respected for his exemplary personal and professional conduct. As a surveyor, the future first American president used his position to purchase enormous tracts of land in Virginia, Pennsylvania and Ohio to multiply his fortunes. When charged to lead to the Continental Army, a largely unformed, rag-tag militia that often lived for days without food and occasionally marched without shoes in the cold of winter, Washington, after patriotically declining a salary, parlayed his expense account with the Continental Congress into numerous amenities including fine wines for entertainment. Opportunism is common to all men and women to some degree due to self-interest being intertwined with the human condition. However, Johnson and others, who employ the word to suggest a certain unscrupulousness in character, often do a disservice to their subjects. Language matters, and historical conclusions, which attempt to interpret the motives and character of people in history, must be carefully supported by facts. In Napoleon, Johnson has allowed bias to taint the pages of his engaging biography.
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In Defending Napoleon II, the crux of Johnson's argument against Napoleon will be examined.
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J Roquen